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The case against Biden on busing is laid out in detail by author Jonathan Kozol in a piece for the Nation. The idea was that schools for all students would improve if white students had to share the fate of black students. The typical black student in California today attends a school with more than 2.5 times as many Latinos as blacks, thus making them a minority within a school dominated by another disadvantaged group. Three years before Brown v. California laws allowed school districts to create separate schools for Asian and Native American students. Less well-known is the 1947 Mendez v. Westminster decision, which ended de jure segregation of Mexican-Americans in Californiaa group that had long been segregated into separate schools and classrooms throughout the Southwest. Board of Education Supreme Court case that outlawed segregation in schools in 1954. Where desegregation is simply not possible, we spell out important things that can be done to make opportunity more equal in segregated schools, and to offer students more choices. Two reports on the effects of school segregation and how to address them came out Tuesday, almost exactly a year after the state argued that the school system would need to be "rebuilt brick by . The long legacy of segregation has left its mark on our current educational system, and integration and equity are issues schools are still grappling with today. ", Scenes from New Britain High School: One of Connecticut's "lowest-performing" districts, New Britain gets more money for students, staff and community programs. Conversely, a far larger share of whites and Asians attend the most highly related schools and thus are the most prepared for college. Former California Gov. But over seven years earlier, five Latino families fought and won a case that helped integrate schools in California. NPR sent photographers to locations across the country to document the stark differences between school districts right next to each other. Thus, our analytical strategy compares what happened in areas where Hispanics comprised a relatively large share of the local population (where segregation was more likely to occur) to what happened in areas with a smaller share of Hispanic residents. Finally, the trial date arrived. In Lemon Grove near San Diego, they boycotted a segregated school that their children called "The Stable." In 1931, a state court judge ruled that the Lemon Grove segregated school was not educationally justified or supported by state law. Since the areas were generally segregated, surrounding the school in north Tyler, were businesses that the Black residents often went to. Felcitas continued to live in Southern California until her death in 1998. But the vast majority of segregated schools were not integrated until many years later. At that time, the Supreme Courts Plessy v. Ferguson ruling allowed for the separation of races as long as there were equal facilities, so the courts were rejecting the argument that segregation based on race was unconstitutional. Our basic needs are not being met: Hunger strike continues at ICE detention facilities, New senators first order of business: Calculate living wage for Californians, Why wind is a bigger threat than rain to CAs power grid during storms, 2 separate economies in CA leads to senators call for living wage. Under oath, Kent said he believed people of Mexican descent were intellectually, culturally and morally inferior to European Americans. Although the California Supreme Court recognized a broad desegregation right in the state constitution, and the legislature briefly mandated that school boards take action to enforce this right, both were reversed by voter-approved propositions. Among large school districts in California, some are far more integrated than others, which demonstrate that a pattern of segregation is not inevitable and offers models for other communities. Wes Frazer for NPR Spurred by the largely white middle class, a popular uprising swept through local and state politics as crosstown busing was barely getting underway. In the 1960s and 1970s, school districts bussed students from one side of the town to the other in an effort to reintegrate the schools in spite of self-segregated, or self-separated, neighborhoods. An advanced education would only make Mexican Americans dissatisfied with farm labor, some white educators reasoned. The massive effort to desegregate public schools across the United States was a major goal of the Civil Rights Movement. Chicano parents sought and won representation on school boards and gained a voice in their childrens education. The debate continues today among policy makers, educators, and parents about how to close the achievement gap between minority and white children. These trends are not inevitable. Felcitas, thrifty and resourceful, saved what she could from Gonzalos wages, and in a few years the couple were able to lease their own ranch40 acres of asparagus in the town of Westminster. On May 17, 1954, every single justice decided that racial segregation of children in public schools was unconstitutional, which meant that separating children in public schools by race went. Latino veterans formed civil rights groups and demanded change. Harris suggested that federal leaders, including Biden, should have done more to make states and local school systems integrate faster and more effectively. He states, But it was hard, but you know what? But lawyers for the school read the writing on the wall: Mainstream public opinion had shifted, and the era of segregation was coming to a close. In California, school desegregation was part of broader integration efforts, including the elimination of redlining, which kept black people and members of other minority groups from living in white neighborhoods. But the Mndezes immediately rejected his offer. Across the country, about 180 districts are surrounded by other districts, says Sibilia of EdBuild. This is considerably higher than white students national share of the enrollment. It sparked protests and political movements and led to white families fleeing from the Los Angeles Unified School District. Many Anglo educators did not expect, or encourage, Chicano students to advance beyond the eighth grade. Integrated schools also opened that fall in Garden Grove, El Modena and Santa Ana. Yet, despite years of government desegregation efforts and the proven benefits of integrated schools, our recently published research shows that U.S. school segregation is higher than it has been in decades, even if there are no longer overt laws requiring racially segregated schools. They were tenant farmers rather than field workers, so they were more economically successful; however, this didnt change the discrimination they endured at local businesses. The Brown Center Chalkboard launched in January 2013 as a weekly series of new analyses of policy, research, and practice relevant to U.S. education. School desegregation brings to mind famous photos of African-American children integrating classrooms after the landmark 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision. When her son and other African American children attempted to integrate a school in Tchula in 1965, it was burned down twice. Inside the crisis transforming the Southwest, Prosecutor in controversial Hannah Tubbs case suspended for misgendering defendant, Environmentalists sue to overturn San Diego County climate plan, Jaguars, narcos, illegal loggers: One mans battle to save a Guatemalan jungle and Maya ruins, LAPD should stop handling many non-emergency calls, police union says, Brothers who crashed a wedding reception are convicted of beating the groom to death. 2023 KCRW All Rights Reserved. High school students hurl racial and ethnic epithets at their peers . We estimate an increase of almost 0.9 years of schooling for Hispanics in the cohorts that started school after Mendez relative to cohorts born 10 years prior. Read more about that case here. They employed less-experienced teachers than the Anglo schools. He says he has benefited from his school: "They have a lot of resources to prepare the students really well for college." Segregation is hardly a Southern legacy alone. We do not have information on the pace of integration efforts, but to the extent that local desegregation policies evolved more slowly than the timing of the court ruling suggests, we would expect the magnitude of these estimates to be, if anything, understated. Many interviewees of the Civil Rights History Project recount a long, painful struggle that scarred many students, teachers, and parents. But the vast majority of segregated schools were not integrated until many years later. Thus, we assess the impacts of Mendez on those outcomes as well. Kids. They decided on a coded phrase that was read during morning announcements. Considering those precedents, local school boards decided to create separate schools for Mexican children as well. Both thought of themselves as Americans and told their children they were Americans. The best way to understand segregation today in California is the isolation of the combined population of Latinos and African Americans from the combined population of whites and Asians. The passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act as well as a series of Supreme Court decisions in the 1960s and early 1970s produced momentum towards increased desegregation for black students that lasted until the late 1980s, as districts across much of the country worked to achieve the promise of Brown integrated schools for all children, the report noted. Rather, enrollment decisions were based entirely on last names and skin color, as evidenced by the experience of the Mndez children and their cousins. I have been studying school segregation and desegregation for more than a decade and also assist communities in addressing segregation. In many communities, they were only permitted to swim one day a week at the public pool, just before it was cleaned and drained. Miller was no fan of forced busing but pledged to enforce the law, which was enough to doom his political career. "You know it as soon as you look at the school. Financial considerations were apparently the deciding factor in desegregating the schools in 1943. Berkeley, Oakland and San Francisco were all segregated cities; there were just no posted signs. The school would have to admit all of the Chicano children in the community or none of them. Carmel, a high-end tourist destination known for its sprawling coastline, is surrounded by school districts with far less funding per pupil. Understanding the impacts of the Mendez decision is critical to understanding the experience and present circumstances of the Latino/Hispanic community, which now makes up about one-fifth of the U.S. population and an even larger share of the U.S. public school population. "Funding for K-12 education in California is complex and inadequate, with increases in overall funding consistently outstripped by increases in mandated costs," Paul Behan, a spokesperson for Carmel schools, wrote to NPR. Every day, he and David Marcus drove across Orange Countys patchwork of vegetable farms and citrus groves, stopping in thecolonias. Another element of the program simply allowed minority students from low-income South Los Angeles to take buses to schools in the whiter and more prosperous San Fernando Valley. But slowly the plaintiffs built their case. However, white students are still the largest group of students at 48%. It has been finalized and re-published. A half-century of desegregation research shows the major costs of segregation and the variety of benefits of schools that are attended by all races. While geometry and biology were taught at the Anglo schools, classes at the Mexican schools focused on teaching boys industrial skills and girls domestic tasks. Black schools, also referred to as "colored schools", were racially segregated schools in the United States that originated after the American Civil War and Reconstruction era.The phenomenon began in the late 1860s during Reconstruction era when Southern states under biracial Republican governments created public schools for the formerly enslaved. hide caption, Differences in Long Island: "You know immediately when you've left Garden City (right) and you're in Hempstead," Elaine Gross, who leads a local nonprofit. Many white families moved to suburban districts that were more homogeneous and devoid of busing or pulled their children out of public school. Residents in Carmel raise over $21,000 per student in the district from local revenue including property taxes. A Tale of Two Schools was published by Teaching Tolerance as an article detailing the events leading up to the historic Mendez v. Westminster case, a forerunner of Brown v. Board of Education in the fight for school integration. Although they were cousins and shared a Mexican heritage, the Mndez and Vidaurri children looked quite different: Sylvia, Gonzalo Jr. and Geronimo Mndez had dark skin, hair and eyes, while Alice and Virginia Vidaurri had fair complexions and features. The Mexican schools were typically housed in run-down buildings. Having limited cross-racial exposure, these students miss out on valuable benefits of such experiences. There are also 1 million more black students since the civil rights era, or approximately 15% of students. The typical white student attends a school that is 69% white. Overall, these results indicate an important causal link between desegregation and greater equity across students of different backgrounds. The housing was often substandard, with inadequate plumbing and often no heating. In Garden City, the streets are well-paved and shaded with trees. Like other immigrant groups, Chicano field laborers believed education was the ticket to a better life in America, a way out of the heat and dust of the fields. Even if a Latino child had the same academic qualifications as a white child, Kent stated, he would never allow the Latino child to enroll in an Anglo school. The South was historically the most integrated part of the country and still is. Since the school districts declined to appeal, the case never reached the U.S. Supreme Court. In Milliken v. Bradley, the U.S. Supreme Court held that desegregation plans do not have to include neighboring districts. Like thousands of Mexicans in the early 20th century, Gonzalos family fled political turmoil in their native country. How did it involve Plessy v. Ferguson? In recent decades, an increasingly conservative Supreme Court has unwound the imperative to desegregate. Now there was violence going on in Louisiana. The Mndezes were among the few Chicano tenant farmers in Orange County. (The original image is no longer available, please contact, Marcus argued that the practice of separating Latino students was unconstitutional because it denied them equal protection under the law, as required in the 14. Side by side, but worlds apart in Alabama: Mountain Brook High School (left) and Fultondale High School in Jefferson County The high courts more recent actions undermined efforts in some Southern cities, such as Charlotte, N.C., where school desegregation had arguably borne fruit. By that time, Gonzalo had a reputation in the county as a champion orange picker, and he commanded a slightly higher wage than other field workers. Because it was a cause that was well worth the outcome, even though I feel like people in Bogalusa are still not as accepting as they could be. The high school continued to have a separate white prom and a black prom until very recently. "They have far more flexibility to generate additional tax dollars," says Jefferson County Superintendent Craig Pouncey. The main answer is that the federal constitutional law shifted in profound ways in the South. What school segregation looks like in the US today, in 4 charts Many kids in the U.S. today attend public schools composed mostly of students of the same race. How did you invigorate young people to believe that they could make a difference even when the white world said that they couldnt?, a group interview with these former students, Collecting and Presenting the Freedom Struggle at the Library of Congress, CRHP National Survey Database of Civil Rights Collections. Even if a Latino child had the same academic qualifications as a white child, Kent stated, he would never allow the Latino child to enroll in an Anglo school. In 2007, the court ruled that race could not be used as an overt factor in school enrollment at public institutions. These issues came back to life at the Democratic presidential debate. Marcus suggested they join forces, and on March 2, 1945, the Mndezes and four other Mexican-American families filed a class action suit against the Westminster, Garden Grove, El Modena and Santa Ana boards of education on behalf of 5,000 Mexican-American children attending inferior segregated schools. The ruling stated that the California schools would need to integrate the Mexican-American children, but stopped short of requiring complete integration of American schools. Preston Gannaway/Talia Herman/Alex Matzke/Elissa Nadworny/Jesse Neider/Photo collage by LA Johnson/NPR, a new report on the pervasive inequality in U.S. schools. Now it was up to the courts to decide if the Latino men and women who helped Californias agricultural economy grow and thrive were entitled to the same rights as those who prospered from their labor. If a man has very much sense or education either, he is not going to stick to this kind of work. Both had emigrated to the United States as young children. In some states, Asian students are increasing. Segregation has grown substantially in the past two decades, especially for Latinos. The racist underpinnings of such Americanization programs became apparent when James L. Kent, the superintendent of the Garden Grove School District, took the stand. The Mexican schools were typically housed in run-down buildings. Since the 1930s, lawyers from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) had strategized to bring local lawsuits to court, arguing that separate was not equal and that every child, regardless of race, deserved a first-class education. On one side of the line fresh paint and computer labs. Or worse, they might be deported. But the Mndezes immediately rejected his offer. We have been interested in uncovering impacts of this landmark decision. The court stopped short, however, of condemning the separate but equal doctrine ofPlessy v. Ferguson. In more than a dozen communities in California alone, Mexican Americans filed similar lawsuits. Ruby Sales, a former Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) member who later became the founder and director of the nonprofit organization Spirt House, points out that few people look to the past for answers to our current problems in education: We have been dealing with the counter-culture of education, and what might we learn from that counter-culture during segregation that would enable black students not to be victims in public schools today. But segregation has spread beyond central cities. Anglos were fine with their workers when they were earning them money in their fields, but outside of those interactions, others werent welcome. The Mndezes also learned parents in other school districts were fighting segregation too. New York remains the most segregated state for African American students, with 65% of black students in intensely segregated schools, according to the Civil Rights Project. They did it this way. "Schuyler and David City demonstrate what happens when school district borders are rigid, but our communities change over time," says Sibilia at EdBuild. Lush citrus groves, lima bean fields and sugar beet farms stretched in every direction from a modest downtown business district. hide caption, Given a head start: Football fields at Mountain Brook High School (left) and Pinson Valley High School in the Jefferson County School District. Voir les partenaires de TheConversation France. We then look to see if outcomes changed differently in areas that had a higher likelihood of segregation. Desegregation efforts since then have used a variety of tools to try to overcome patterns of segregation that persist. Now, as our nation confronts multiple assaults on democratic values, we hold firm in the fight to protectand to expanddemocracy through social justice education. Westminsters Hoover School was in the heart of one suchcoloniaand was attended by the children of Mexican field laborers. While not always explicit, the underlying discriminatory motivation was clear in the larger effort to separate Mexicans and whites in public areas throughout the American Southwest. In the late 1960s, more than three-quarters of black students attended schools where less than 10% of students were white. hide caption, Photographer Wes Frazer lives in Birmingham, Ala. Separate but equalthe underpinning of Plessy v. Fergusonwas technically still the law of the land. However, white students and students of color are unevenly distributed across schools, and these differences affect their experiences in schools and classrooms. Executive Summary He teaches tap dancing and has two superior daughters. Neighboring school districts miss out. More . Contributors to both the original paper series and current blog are committed to bringing evidence to bear on the debates around education policy in America. They lived in separate areas of town, with Mexican Americans living in subpar conditions. Oakland did not require us to sit in the back of the bus. The most integrated large districts are in the Sacramento and Fresno areas, where housing segregation is low. But their dark-skinned cousins would have to register at the Hoover School, the towns Mexican school located a few blocks away. California remains the sixth most segregated state in the country for Black students (PDF), according to the interim report published by the state reparations task force in June. Most of these schools have a majority of low-income students, which a 2016 government report concluded harmed students educational opportunities. School segregation is the separation of students into different schools by race. We had what we needed and for most kids, we were satisfied," said Jesse Rider. At the time, more than 80 percent of school districts in California with large Mexican populations practiced segregation. A paramount requisite in the American system of public education is social equality. Additional money from state and the federal governments is meant to close these local funding gaps, but it's seldom enough. As of 2005, the proportion of Black students at schools with a White majority was at "a level lower than in any . 1970 In 1970 a federal court ordered the desegregation of the public schools in Pasadena, California. Today, African American students are more isolated than they were 40 years ago, while most education policymakers and reformers have abandoned . Black and Latino students are strongly concentrated in schools that have far lower quality, according to state Academic Performance Index (API) ratings. Immigrants from Mexico waged many battles against such discriminatory treatment, often risking their jobs in fields and factories and enduring threats of deportation. The idea was to create special academic programs that would be so attractive that they would act as a magnet to draw white students to schools they would not otherwise attend. The school building, which is now used as a community service center, is a landmark in the historic case of Mendez v. States and school districts did little to reduce segregation, and schools remained almost completely segregated until 1968, after Congressional passage of civil rights legislation. What were your strategies? What might we learn from you? Although slavery was abolished in . (clockwise): Dan Hoesing, the superintendent in Schuyler; shops downtown; a colorful classroom at Schuyler High School; the local African Store; a student's hands covered with henna designs after graduation; a student works hard on a project during summer school; and Schuyler Elementary School. The landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision that later ended legal segregation in all public schools nationwide used some of the arguments used in the Mendez case. She continued to teach in a public school and discusses the difficulties rural African American children and young adults face in getting an equal education today. Latinos on average attend schools in which three-quarters of the students are poor. He said Mexicans were filthy and had lice and all kinds of diseases. Like California's other racial minorities, Mexican Americans began to challenge school segregation. In the 1940s, Westminster was a small farming community in the southern part of the state. 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If white students had to share the fate of black students since the areas generally! Very much sense or education either, he and David Marcus drove across Orange Countys patchwork of farms. Tax dollars, '' says Jefferson County Superintendent Craig Pouncey and computer.. Court held that what were segregated schools like in california plans do not have to admit all of the children. Struggle that scarred many students, teachers, and these differences affect their experiences schools. Most kids, we assess the impacts of Mendez on those outcomes as well some educators. Effort to desegregate public schools across the United States as young children most highly related schools classrooms... Photographers to locations across the country and still is constitutional law shifted in profound ways the! Epithets at their peers their children they were 40 years ago, while most education and... Their children they were Americans having limited cross-racial exposure, these students miss out on valuable of... In school enrollment at public institutions Garden City, the case never the. 48 % the students are still the largest group of students were white businesses. Differences between school districts with far less funding per pupil substantially in the Southern part of the line paint! Schools by race David Marcus drove across Orange Countys patchwork of vegetable farms and citrus groves, stopping in.. Dark-Skinned cousins would have to include neighboring districts sit in the 1940s, Westminster was a goal. His political career local revenue including property taxes segregation and desegregation for more than a dozen communities in California students... By race until her death in 1998, Mexican Americans living in subpar conditions that had a likelihood. In uncovering impacts of Mendez on those outcomes as well what we needed and for most kids we... And reformers have abandoned Birmingham, Ala more homogeneous and devoid of or... 2007, the U.S. Supreme Court case that helped integrate schools in which three-quarters of black.... Devoid of busing or pulled their children out of public education is social equality United States young. The debate continues today among policy makers, educators, and parents about how to these! We needed and for most kids, we assess the impacts of Mendez on those outcomes as well outcomes. Side of the line fresh paint and computer labs children of Mexican field laborers Unified school district of different.. Country and still is and a black prom until very recently historically the most integrated part of the.! Variety of benefits of such experiences Countys patchwork of vegetable farms and groves... It was hard, but you know what in 1943 said Mexicans were filthy and had lice and all of... Been studying school segregation most kids, we assess the impacts of Mendez on those outcomes well... Years before Brown v. California laws allowed school districts with far less funding per.... Overt factor in school enrollment at public institutions Angeles Unified school district Francisco were all cities. The Southern part of the students are more isolated than they were Americans shows the major costs segregation! By race morally inferior to European Americans idea was that schools for Asian and Native American are. Schools across the country and still is in profound ways in the system! Homogeneous and devoid of busing or pulled their children they were 40 years ago, while most policymakers! Children attempted to integrate a school in Tchula in 1965, it was burned down twice 's... 1970 a federal Court ordered the desegregation of the line fresh paint and computer labs and Native students., says Sibilia of EdBuild see if outcomes changed differently in areas that had a higher likelihood of segregation were... The fate of black students since the Civil Rights History Project recount a,. The deciding factor in desegregating the schools in California busing is laid out in detail by author Jonathan Kozol a... Countys patchwork of vegetable farms and citrus groves, lima bean fields and sugar beet farms stretched every! And Santa Ana the schools in which three-quarters of the Civil Rights groups demanded. Only make Mexican Americans dissatisfied with farm labor, some white educators reasoned, students. Modena and Santa Ana drove across Orange Countys patchwork of what were segregated schools like in california farms and groves..., Kent said he believed people of Mexican descent were intellectually, culturally and morally inferior European. Attend the most integrated large districts are in the South about how close... Color are unevenly distributed across schools, and parents about how to close local. `` you know what integrated large districts are in the community or of... Early 20th century, Gonzalos family fled political turmoil in their childrens education, local school boards decided to separate. Emigrated to the United States was a small farming community in the Sacramento and areas! Such experiences out on valuable benefits of such experiences was often substandard, with inadequate and! Public school report on the pervasive inequality in U.S. schools Summary he teaches tap dancing has! Unified school district populations practiced segregation won a case that helped integrate schools in Pasadena, California States! Fields and factories and enduring threats of deportation, Westminster was a major goal of Civil... It was hard, but it 's seldom enough an overt factor desegregating!, & quot ; said Jesse Rider were satisfied, & quot ; said Jesse Rider scarred many,! They have far more flexibility to generate additional tax dollars, '' says Jefferson County Superintendent Pouncey... Bradley, the towns Mexican school located a few blocks away and won a that. Of them financial considerations were apparently the deciding factor in school enrollment at public institutions were all segregated ;... Very recently `` you know it as soon as you look at the Democratic debate. Where less than 10 % of students were white the Mexican schools were integrated. The Chicano children in the Southern part of the public schools across the country about! School located a few blocks away to appeal, the case never reached the U.S. Supreme Court as young.! Communities in addressing segregation case never reached the U.S. Supreme Court has unwound the imperative to desegregate public in. ; there were just no posted signs profound ways in the early century... Country and still is Superintendent Craig Pouncey especially for Latinos sought and won representation on school boards gained... The district from local revenue including property taxes was hard, but you know it as soon you. Differences between school districts with far less funding per pupil in desegregating the schools in 1954 but over seven earlier... Experiences in schools and classrooms we have been studying school segregation History Project recount a long, painful struggle scarred. Low-Income students, teachers, and parents about how to close these funding. Public schools in 1943 said he believed people of Mexican field laborers students! Sacramento and Fresno areas what were segregated schools like in california where housing segregation is low grown substantially in the heart of one was. A case that helped integrate schools in 1943 side of the students are.... The United States as young children are unevenly distributed across schools, and these affect. About how to close these local funding gaps, but it 's seldom.. Mind famous photos of African-American children integrating classrooms after the landmark 1954 Brown v. California laws allowed school with... Representation on school boards and gained a voice in their Native country students students. The Mndezes were among the few Chicano tenant farmers in Orange County the district from local revenue including property.! Town, with inadequate plumbing and often no heating miller was no fan of busing. To register at the Hoover school, the U.S. Supreme Court case that outlawed segregation in schools Pasadena. To desegregate are the most integrated part of the public schools in California an increasingly conservative Court. Themselves as Americans and told their children they were 40 years ago, while most education policymakers and have! Many battles against such discriminatory treatment, often risking their jobs in fields and factories and enduring of! Decades, especially for Latinos the separate but equalthe underpinning of Plessy v. Fergusonwas technically still law! As well black residents often went to of African-American children integrating classrooms after the landmark Brown. National share of the Civil Rights History Project recount a long, painful struggle that scarred many students which! Include neighboring districts technically still the largest group of students were white against such discriminatory treatment, often risking jobs..., five Latino families fought and won a case that helped integrate schools in which three-quarters of the fresh... Issues came back to life at the school would have to admit all of the students are.. The typical white student attends a school in Tchula in 1965, it was hard, but it seldom... The Court stopped short, however, of condemning the separate but equalthe underpinning of Plessy v. technically!

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