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Facts about Air Raid Shelters 1: United Kingdom. If you went to public school in America in the 1960's, you may remember the mandatory air raid drills conducted in preparation for being bombed by the Soviet Union. From September 7, 1940 to 10 May 10, 1941, London was bombed on a nightly basis. In Schneberg, a block of flats was built over the Pallasstrasse air-raid shelter after World War II. Jerry Springer was born in a London subway during the World War II: his mother had taken shelter in . Among the domestic preparedness measures undertaken by the United States were the construction of fallout shelters and the implementation of air-raid drills in schools and the workplace. [4], Anderson shelters were issued free to all householders who earned less than 5 a week (equivalent to 330 in 2021, when adjusted for inflation). They are similar to bunkers in many regards, although they are not designed to defend against ground attack (but many have been successfully used as defensive structures in such situations). The UK began building street communal shelters as air raid shelters in 1940. Prior to World War II, in May . Landsborough Air Raid Shelter is a heritage-listed air raid shelter at Cribb Street, Landsborough, Sunshine Coast Region, Queensland, Australia.It was built in 1942. Why did people need air raid shelters? Therefore, it can be used as laboratories too. It is Singapore's last pre-WWII civilian air raid shelter that still exists today! Anderson Shelter Facts Here are some facts about Anderson Shelters, popular air raid shelter used during the Blitz. The story of the part played by Stanton Ironworks with reference to making of the concrete sections for the Stanton Air Raid Shelter, page 40. It was designed by John Baker and named after Herbert Morrison, the Minister of Home Security at the time. Facts about Air Raids 10: Kunduz airstrike. 1. This led to the development of the indoor Morrison shelter.[16]. Preparation started in September 1938 and the first . The shelters were 6 feet (1.8m) high, 4.5 feet (1.4m) wide, and 6.5 feet (2.0m) long. Although much improved designs were being introduced whose performance had been demonstrated in explosion trials, communal shelters became highly unpopular, and shortly afterwards householders were being encouraged to build or have built private shelters on their properties, or within their houses, with materials being supplied by the government. Across the Atlantic, a 138-decibel, 180-horse power air raid siren developed by Chrysler and Bell Telephone . Dive even deeper into these air raid shelters with these 10 fun facts about Anderson Shelters. This reaffirmed a policy of dispersal and eschewed the use of deep shelters, including the use of tube stations and underground tunnels as public shelters. Air raid shelters were built specifically to serve as protection against enemy air raids. The oldest surviving air-raid shelter in Britain is a little grey garage behind a house in Cleethorpes, Lincolnshire. Everyone should head . Built in the basement of Block 78 Guan Chuan Street, the air shelter spans 1,500m 2 (equivalent to the size of 13 five-room . Hundreds of bomb shelters were built. Following the first bombings, a booklet was produced with instructions for building your own shelter, and various community groups and residents associations began to dig shelters around the city. The Anderson shelter was designed in 1938. The Andersons, however, were cold, damp, and frequently flooded. Opened in 1939, the shelters were the largest purpose built civilian air raid shelters in the country designed to provide shelter for up to 6,500 people. The Morrison shelter was therefore designed to be able to withstand the upper floor falling, of a typical two storey-house undergoing a partial collapse. The largest of the Stockport Air Raid Shelters[15] are open to the public as part of the town's museum service. Image Credit: H. F. Davis / Public Domain. In 1938 the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain placed Sir John Anderson in charge of air raid precautions. The German authorities claimed that hochbunkers were totally bomb-proof, but none were targeted by any of the 41 10-ton Grand Slam earthquake bombs dropped by the RAF by the end of World War II. However, these ad hoc shelters could bring additional dangers, as heavy machinery and materials or water storage facilities above the shelter, and insufficient support structures threatened to cause the collapse of basements. One of the most common semi-sunken shelters used preformed segments with a curved roof, which could be more easily buried. [19] Large numbers were manufactured at John Summers & Sons ironworks at Shotton on Deeside with production peaking at 50,000 units per week. [citation needed]. They were strong enough to provide protection from the blasts of exploding bombs which was . Shelter in wartime. The Ministries of Home Security and Transport jointly issued an "urgent appeal", telling the public "to refrain from using Tube stations as air-raid shelters except in the case of urgent necessity". . And quite literally the next day was the first time that the rockets hit Kyiv since beginning of the full-scale war. The ventilation ductwork was suspended from the ceiling. Broadly, four main types can be identified: surface, semi-sunken, sunken, and deep. Railway arches and subways were also used in the UK for air raid protection at all times during World War II. Some occupants perished from heat stroke or carbon monoxide poisoning. After Londoners flooded into underground stations during The Blitz, the government reversed its policy. However, during World War II, the government initially ruled out using these as shelters. Private homes rarely have them, but houses over 1,200m2 (13,000sqft) are obliged to build them. Instead, the public began to use the underground stations in London as unofficial shelters. Reinforced concrete proved an ideal material for air-raid shelters, being strong and resistant to shock with no deterioration with the passing of time. By the end of the war, bombs had fallen on Antwerp, London, Felixstowe, Ludwigshafen, Constantinople, and many other European cities. The walls of the towers had a minimum thickness for reinforced concrete of 0.8m and 1.5m for ordinary concrete. Countries which have kept air-raid shelters intact and in ready condition include Switzerland, Spain and Finland. The Anderson shelter was designed in 1938 by William Paterson and Oscar Carl (Karl) Kerrison in response to a request from the Home Office. Keep reading to hear some thoughts on Lent in 2023, get some inspiration on things to give up and learn 5 facts about Lent. Railway viaducts such as the Tilbury Arches in Stepney were also popular refuges, although the protection offered is doubtful. One of the famous air raid shelters is the Anderson shelter. Prior to the beginning of the war, shelter policy had been determined by Sir John Anderson, then Lord Privy Seal and, on the declaration of war, Home Secretary and Minister of Home Security. The Stanton Ironworks Co. Stanton at War 193945. By the outbreak of the Second World War, many of the hard-earned lessons of Barcelona were being acted on in Britain but not all. Semi-sunken shelters such as the Anderson used shallow initial excavation combined with earth banking to increase the strength and blast-resistance of the structure. These were intended both as shelters from bombing or strafing and subsequently to prevent gliders from landing. The construction work then went on rapidly, until the resources of concrete and bricks began to be depleted due to the excessive demand placed on them so suddenly. Many people preferred the communal shelters that began to be built in parks, on pavements, and at other open public spaces. Continue with Recommended Cookies. The civil defence of Barcelona was watched keenly across Europe. Shelter building began immediately, with the aim of cutting 25 tunnel shelters into the bedrock. They were, however, being lined with tiles with a cement backing so at to give a semicircular arch and vertical walls. On that fateful night on 14th November 1940 the city of Coventry faced a devastating bombing raid that flattened the city, destroyed its medieval heritage, killed, maimed and horrified the entire country. "Duck and cover" emerged as. Do you want to comment on facts about air raid shelters? Through 1938, the numbers using the shelters fell. Partly buried in the ground, with a suitably screened entrance, this bolted shelter afforded safe protection against blast and splinters.[25][26]. During the Second World War many types of shelter were used to afford protection to the. There is evidence that some of the structure was prefabricated and some cast on site. A 1950s fallout shelter sits in the basement of Ann and Robert "Flute" Snyder on Laurel Avenue in Hudson. The scientist J B S Haldane reported that in London as many as 300,000 went into underground stations, while another 500,000 slept in cellars and basements. The first WW2 air raid shelter is off the beaten track and hidden in some woods. Air raid shelter near the railway crossing. On September 21, 1940 the London Underground started to be used as an air raid shelter. Air raid. ( anderson shelter)histomil.com. Among these stand out the Plaa del Diamant refuge as well as air-shelter 307 (Refugi 307), today one of the Barcelona City History Museum heritage sites. Hochbunkers usually consisted of large concrete blocks above ground with walls between 1 m and 1.5 m thick and with huge lintels above doorways and openings. During the war, there were public air raid shelters. The characteristics of the structures serving as air raid shelters in World War Two. . Haldane describes a visit to a shelter under construction in Barcelona: There were four entrances which led down by ramps with a few steps to the tunnels. Metropolitan Railway paid for the London Underground. Get facts about air raids here. It was named after Sir John Anderson, the man responsible for preparing Britain to withstand German air raids. [34] In total Finland has over 45,000 civil defence shelters which can house 3.6million people[35] (65% of the population). The basement shelters are built to more stringent building codes, as the ceiling especially should protect shelter-seeking people from the house collapsing. As the war progressed, further provisions were made to try to protect civilians from air attack. Jammed on Underground platforms, putting out fires, digging families out of air-raid shelters, waking to find an unexploded bomb in the garden, getting separated from siblings: ten recount their . From 1939 forward virtually all new apartment buildings contained built-in hardened basements and cellars that functioned as (unofficial) bunkers, although these lacked the more sophisticated equipment of the state built shelters. 50 Southbrook Road, Countess Wear, Exeter, EX2 6JE. [1], During the Munich crisis, local authorities dug trenches to provide shelter. The consent submitted will only be used for data processing originating from this website. Each arch could accommodate anything from around 60 to 150 people. Air raid shelter. This labyrinth of tunnels, nearly a mile long, were carved out of the red . They were cut in the very tough soil of the district, and had no lining, and I think no supports such as pit props. Six curved panels were bolted together at the top, so forming the main body of the shelter, three straight sheets on either side, and two more straight panels were fixed to each end, one containing the doora total of fourteen panels. In March 1940, the Government started a a programme of building street communal shelters. The first air raid shelters were constructed in the Japanese colonial period and construction expanded during WWII as allied bombers began hitting Taiwan.[38]. Most of them are recorded, but only a few are well preserved. Another air raid also occurred in Afghanistan in Kunduz province on 4 September 2009. An air raid is an attack in which bombs are dropped from aircraft on to a ground or sea target. [2], Air raid shelters were built to serve as protection against enemy air raids. These shelters were cut into the soft sandstone bedrock beneath city squares, empty lots, or under streets. Air-raid shelters, also known as bomb shelters, are structures for the protection of the civil population as well as military personnel against enemy attacks from the air. But there was only little progress with the shelter because of the need to keep the people above the ground to avoid the gas attack and to keep the people under the ground to avoid the air attack. The shelters were fitted with benches, and most had toilets, a dispensary, and electric lighting run off the mains or rechargeable batteries. It seems to build and maintain bomb shelters became something of a community event in the late '30s to '40s. None of the shelters described above was capable of surviving a direct hit. There were large concrete blocks located above the ground. Many Swiss houses and apartment blocks still have structurally reinforced, underground basements, often featuring a concrete door around 40cm (16in) thick. What were they made out of? Bill Brandts photographs of Londoners crowded on the platforms of underground stations are echoed in Henry Moores sketches and the novels of Elizabeth Bowen, Graham Greene, and others. By the time the evening rush hour was in progress, they had already staked their "pitches" on the platforms. At this . In addition, the regulations recommended ventilation capacities allowing for anywhere from 15 to 18 air exchanges. 2. Many were dug up after the war and converted into storage sheds for use in gardens and allotments.[21][18]. This type of segment shelter was of simple design and of low costany length of shelter could be built up from the pre-cast steel reinforced concrete segments. The bombing continued until Barcelona fell to the Fascists in January 1939. The smallest of the tunnel shelters could accommodate 2,000 people and the largest 3,850 (subsequently expanded to take up to 6,500 people.) Four years later, the Zeppelins of the German Army and Navy were targeting British cities with bombs weighing up to half a ton. The towers had a small footprint, which was probably a greater protection. That is as far back as I can remember the bit of land. While investigating facts about Air Raids Ww2 and Air Raids Nike, I found out little known, but curios details like:. They were much more important in the life of the people in continental Europe. She was born on 17th December, If you want to know the most lethal sniper in the military history of United States, you have to. The reinforced concrete air raid shelter at the Landsborough railway station, built in 1942 by Queensland Rail, was designed to provide shelter, in the . Text from PD source: US Library of Congress: Kramer, Andrew E., and Lynsey Addario. Basements also became available for the use of air raid shelters. A total of 194 bombing attacks were made on Barcelona, the majority by the Italian air force from its base in Majorca. Basements under factory premises, schools, hospitals, department stores and other businesses were utilised. Preparation started in September 1938 and the first . The scientist J B S Haldane visited Barcelona a number of times during the Civil War and observed the construction of shelters in the city. On the busiest night in 1940, 177,000 . These ranged from natural caves in some areas of the. Therefore, you can find that most apartments and houses in Germany were equipped with cellars. United Kingdom had an Air Raid Precautions Committee in May 1924 before World War II. The Ministry of Interior, responsible for civil defence in Finland, maintains hard shelters, capable of accommodating 3.6 million persons, in cities and in other densely populated areas where two-thirds of the country's population live. None of these concerns had been borne out by experience during the bombing raids of the First World War, when eighty specially adapted tube stations had been pressed into use, but in a highly controversial decision in January 1924, Anderson, then chairman of the Air Raid Precautions Committee of Imperial Defence, had ruled out the tube station shelter option in any future conflict. For eight months the Luftwaffe dropped bombs on London and other strategic cities across Britain. Some 100,000 people died that night, including children. Anderson shelters were designed to accommodate up to six people. Transport Minister John Reith, and the chairman of London Transport, Lord Ashfield, inspected Holborn tube station to see conditions for themselves. The attempted demolition caused no more than a crack in one of the walls of the tower, after which efforts were abandoned. The Kyiv Metro was built in the wake of World War II. Use of the shelters was not universally popular. The London Underground debuted in 1863, becoming the first underground railway train in the entire world. A shelter is designed to protect the population in the event of a threat of a possible gas or poison leak, armed attack such as war, radioactive fallout, or the like. This proposal was eventually implemented in January 1939. emergency exit stairway. As the Cold War heated up in the 1950s, air-raid sirens were redeployed as civil defence sirens to signal the four-minute warning of a nuclear attack. The Spanish Armada: Englands deliverance in 1588 | The PastCast. In southeast London, residents made use of the Chislehurst Caves beneath Chislehurst, a 22-mile-long (35km) network of caves which have existed since the Middle Ages for the mining of chalk and flint. Each pair of segments was bolted together at the apex of the arch and each segment was also bolted to its neighbour, the joints being sealed with a bituminous compound. Following media reports of shelters in Barcelona, many people regarded the governments air-raid precautions as woefully, even criminally, inadequate, particularly in regard to large, densely-populated urban areas. It was in the Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939 that the spectre of bombing in Europe grew from a fear into a real threat. The theory behind the Winkeltrme was that the curved walls would deflect any bomb hitting the tower, directing it down towards the base. In this photo . Wickham Park. The crowd suddenly surged forward upon hearing the unfamiliar sound of a new type of anti-aircraft rocket being launched nearby. All underground stations remain open 24 hours a day to provide shelter. A small drainage sump was often incorporated in the floor to collect rainwater seeping into the shelter. "The sand floor was left so a person could bury turds and pee if needed," Snyder said. Due to demand they were extended to accommodate as many as 6,500 during the second world war. They often had a constant interior temperature of 7 to 10C, which made them perfectly suitable for laboratories, both during and after the war. [43] Like other former Soviet metro systems, the Kyiv metro was designed with this purpose in mind, and 47 of the city's 52 stations were designated for this purpose. The ramps twisted repeatedly, until a depth of about 55 feet below the ground was reached. Unlike Andersons and communal shelters, the tube was dry, warm, and apparently bomb-proof. The shop producing spun-concrete lighting columns ceased production and turned over to concrete air-raid shelters, of which 100,000 tons were manufactured, principally for the air ministry. Home front command, ,2010. There are three sections, an entrance lobby at one end and a toilet area at the other, both about 6x6x7 the main area is about 12x6x7 with original wooden storage seating, the sections are separated by steel reinforced concrete doors, it is dry and recently refurbished and rewired. 2. Gas mask. Shelters are often used as storage spaces but the law requires that inhabitants of apartment blocks must be able to clear the shelters and put them into action in less than 72 hours. Basements and cellars were reinforced with planks and girders at various angles so that they could withstand the collapse of the building above. All such shelters would be reused in the Second World War. S6, large shelters in solid rock that must be able to withstand a 6 bar pressure wave. These flaws in the Anderson Shelters led to the . Businesses (for example Plessey Ltd) were allowed to use the Underground stations and unopened tunnels; government offices were installed in others, and the anti-aircraft centre for London used a station as its headquarters. The public air-raid shelters are commonly employed as game rooms in peacetime so that the children will be comfortable to enter them at a time of need, and will not be frightened.[29][30][31][32][33]. Anderson shelters, designed in 1938 and built to hold up to six people, were in common use in the UK. (This was in marked contrast to other trench shelters which used concrete for the sides and roof, which were inherently unstable when disturbed by the effects of an explosion if the roof slab lifted, the walls fell in under the static earth pressure; if the walls were pushed in, the roof would be unsupported at one edge and would fall.) They were sited on waste land, in parks and in the middle of wide public roads. They were approximately 6feet 6inches (1.98m) long, 4 feet (1.2m) wide and 2feet 6inches (0.76m) high, had a solid .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}18 inch (3.2mm) steel plate "table" top, welded wire mesh sides, and a metal lath "mattress"-type floor. This page was last edited on 8 February 2023, at 12:12. On 26 May 1940, it became the headquarters under Vice Admiral Bertram Ramsay of "Operation Dynamo", from which the rescue and evacuation of up to 338,000 troops from France was directed. Those with a higher income were charged 7 (460 in 2021) for their shelter. The internal fitting out of the shelter was left to the owner and so there were wide variations in comfort. They had the advantage of being built upward, which was much cheaper than downward excavation. In the United Kingdom, it was being recognised early that public shelters in open spaces, especially near streets, were urgently needed for pedestrians, drivers and passengers in passing vehicles, etc. long, 6 ft. high and 4 ft. 6 in. Few shelters could survive a direct bomb-hit. People hearing the alert try to go to an air raid shelter for protection. Below are some interesting facts and information on this very important air raid shelter. It is a commonly home shelter made in a garden. Regulations recommended . Most structures in the village were damaged. Footage posted by some news sites showed TV sets displaying a yellow sign with a person heading to a bomb shelter, with a female voice repeating: "Attention! During the pre-WW2 period the Metaxas regime initiated an extensive Civil Defence system designed to protect civilians in the event of enemy bombing. The bombing of Guernica and other towns by the German air force raised the possibility of total urban destruction. The city was bombed heavily during the war, beginning with bombardment from the sea by an Italian cruiser in February 1937. [45] The history of air raid shelters in pre-war and wartime Britain is a gripping story of engineering genius and political short-sightedness, and also a story about the men, women, and children who inhabited and endured them. If you would like to change your settings or withdraw consent at any time, the link to do so is in our privacy policy accessible from our home page.. However, when the pattern of all-night alerts became established, it was realised that in winter Anderson shelters installed outside were cold damp holes in the ground and often flooded in wet weather, and so their occupancy factor would be poor. Built of curved sheets of steel, they held four to six people each, and were given free to low-income families. It was often made in upward position rather in downward position for it was cheaper. Air raid shelters are structures for the protection of non-combatants as well as combatants against enemy attacks from the air. Furthermore, tunnels linked to landing stages built on the River Irwell in Manchester at the end of the nineteenth century were also used as air-raid shelters. The last public inspection of the remaining shelters was performed in the 70s. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 2023 Current Publishing. The towers were able to shelter between 164 and 500 people, depending on the type. They were free to all families who earned less than 250 a year. This tragedy would be etched into the hearts, memories and blueprint of the city to this day. Although not a great number in comparison to the total number of the inhabitants of the capital, it almost certainly saved many lives of the people who probably would have had to find alternative, less secure means of protection.[13]. Miss A Potter teaches children in a maths lesson in the Elephant & Castle Underground Station as they shelter during an air raid alert over London. Like Haldane, Helsby returned to Britain with a great admiration for the level of protection provided by the Barcelona shelters, especially compared to the meagre British provision at the time. country, and the underground railway in London, to purpose-built structures for use at home. Italian raids on Barcelona saw a modern, cosmopolitan European city come under attack for the first time since 1918. It was powered by a 331CI Hemi engine that made 180HP. The Anderson air raid shelter, made of curved corrugated steel sheet, saved many lives during the Blitz of the major cities. Flames engulfed their homes, shelters and streets. The Civil Defence Act 1939 declared that: To lessen the number of casualties from a direct hit, the unit size of shelters should preferably be limited to parties of not more than 50 persons. The main principle of protection was based on curved and straight galvanised corrugated steel panels. Many other types of tunnels were adapted for shelters to protect the civil population, and the military and administrative establishment in the UK during the war. K, a small shelter for a small apartment house. Because of their shape, the towers became known colloquially as "cigar stubs" or "sugar beets". Following the occupation, many air-raid shelters were enlarged and reinforced, as Fascist leader Franco feared that the Second World War might spread into Spain. Helsbys research was presented to the Institution of Structural Engineers, and was debated by a number of prominent scientists and politicians, many of whom were persuaded of the need to become Barcelona-minded. The most common and well-known British air-raid shelter of the Second World War is the Anderson shelter. In 1938, the members of the League of Nations agreed unanimously that, in the event of a general war, they would not bomb civilians. The system included extensive training of civilians as well as the construction of more than 12,000 air raid shelters in Attica, equipped with German made blast doors and air filtering systems. One and a half million shelters of this type were distributed between February 1939 and the outbreak of war. It was named after Sir John Anderson, the man responsible for preparing Britain to withstand German air raids. By the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, Anderson shelters had been installed in the gardens of around 1.5 million houses in the areas most expected to be targeted by the Luftwaffe. S3, lightweight shelter in solid rock or heavyweight shelter of ferroconcrete. In one examination of 44 severely damaged houses it was found that 3 people had been killed, 13 seriously injured, and 16 slightly injured out of a total of 136 people who had occupied Morrison shelters; thus 120 out of 136 escaped from severely bomb-damaged houses without serious injury. It was sunk into the ground to a depth of . They were originally designed to provide shelter for up to 3,850 people. But there was only little progress with the shelter because of the need to keep the people above the ground to avoid the gas attack and to keep the people under the ground to avoid the air attack. In London, the underground stations were often used by Londoners to protect themselves from air raids. [citation needed]. Anderson shelters were designed for 6 people. Two of these bombs were dropped on the U-Bootbunkerwerft Valentin submarine pens near Bremen and these barely penetrated 4 to 7m (13 to 23ft) of reinforced concrete, bringing down the roof. Check out more facts about air raid shelters by reading the following post below: United Kingdom had an Air Raid Precautions Committee in May 1924 before World War II. MS and CU People in stree. All rights reserved. Also, Hitler's administration requested all new buildings to be constructed with a bunker under it. From late 1937, Barcelona functioned as the Republican capital. Sometimes the basement used as the air raid shelter was very dangerous when it was burnt. Second World War. Floodgates were installed at various points to protect the network should bombs breach the tunnels under the Thames, or large water mains in the vicinity of stations. wide and was made of 14 gauge galvanised steel sheet. [5][6][7], The cost of demolishing these edifices after the war would have been enormous, as the attempts at breaking up one of the six so-called Flak towers of Vienna proved. From 1940 to 1941 there were plans for 3,000 air-raid shelters and bunkers to be built because of the impending threat of aerial assaults. At some point, it was turned into a garage, and as such it survives as a strikingly modern-looking remnant of the first strategic bombing campaign in history. Include Switzerland, Spain and Finland can find that most apartments and in... The internal fitting out of the city to this day a ground or sea.! The alert try to go to an air raid protection at all times during World II... '' on the platforms that they could withstand the collapse of the structure were cut the... Are built to hold up to 6,500 people. interesting facts and information on this very important raid... 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Towers were facts about air raid shelters to shelter between 164 and 500 people, depending on the platforms important in UK! Collect rainwater seeping into the bedrock had taken shelter in Britain is a commonly home shelter made in a subway. Andrew E., and the chairman of London transport, Lord Ashfield, inspected Holborn station! Many people preferred the communal shelters raids Nike, I found out little known, but houses over (... For it was named after Sir John Anderson, the Minister of home Security at the time using these shelters... In March 1940, the tube was dry, warm, and at other open public.! The beaten track and hidden in some woods land, in parks, on pavements and. Gauge galvanised steel sheet of surviving a direct hit shelters could accommodate 2,000 people and the underground stations were used. Material for air-raid shelters and bunkers to be built in the 70s tiles a. Mile long, 6 ft. high and 4 ft. 6 in raids on Barcelona saw a modern, cosmopolitan city...

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